NOTE: These notes are a composite of several editions of the book. They have not yet been modified to include material from the Second Canadian Edition, but the older material is a good basis for the present edition of the book. The Exam Review Questions are based on the Second Canadian Edition. Answers to these questions can be found both in the book and in the Powerpoint slides for the chapter. If you are unable to find an answer in the text, look in the Powerpoint slides. You have to be logged in to moodle in order to access the Powerpoint slides.
Table of Contents
- WHAT ARE THEORIES
AND WHY DO WE NEED THEM?
- FUNCTIONALIST
THEORY: WHAT DO SPORTS CONTRIBUTE TO SOCIETY?
- Functionalist
Theory and Research on Sports
- Using Functionalist
Theory in Everyday Life
- Weaknesses
of Functionalist Theory
- CONFLICT THEORY:
ARE SPORTS ALL ABOUT MONEY AND ECONOMIC POWER?
- Conflict Theory
and Research on Sports
- Using Conflict
Theory in Everyday Life
- Weaknesses
of Conflict Theory
- Beyond the
Needs of Society
- INTERACTIONIST
THEORY: HOW DO PEOPLE EXPERIENCE SPORTS?
- Interactionist
Theory and Research on Sports
- Using Interactionist
Theory in Everyday Life
- Weaknesses
of Interactionist Theory
- CRITICAL THEORIES:
HOW ARE SPORTS INVOLVED IN CREATING AND CHANGING SOCIAL RELATIONS
AND CULTURE?
- Critical Theories
and Research on Sports
- Using Critical
Theories in Everyday Life
- Weaknesses
of Critical Theories
- FIGURATIONAL
THEORY: UNDERSTANDING SPORTS IN TERMS OF HISTORICAL
AND GLOBAL PROCESSES
- SUMMARY: IS
THERE A BEST THEORETICAL APPROACH TO USE
WHEN STUDYING
SPORTS?
- EXAM REVIEW QUESTIONS
WHAT ARE THEORIES
AND WHY DO WE NEED THEM?
FUNCTIONALIST THEORY: WHAT DO SPORTS CONTRIBUTE TO SOCIETY?
Functionalist Theory and Research on Sports
Using Functionalist Theory in Everyday Life
Weaknesses of Functionalist Theory
CONFLICT THEORY: ARE SPORTS ALL ABOUT MONEY AND ECONOMIC POWER?
Conflict Theory and Research on Sports
Using Conflict Theory in Everyday Life
Weaknesses of Conflict Theory
Beyond the Needs of Society
INTERACTIONIST THEORY: HOW DO PEOPLE EXPERIENCE SPORTS?
Interactionist Theory and Research on Sports
Using Interactionist Theory in Everyday Life
Weaknesses of Interactionist Theory
CRITICAL THEORIES: HOW ARE SPORTS INVOLVED IN CREATING AND CHANGING SOCIAL RELATIONS
AND CULTURE?
Critical Theories and Research on Sports
Using Critical Theories in Everyday Life
Weaknesses of Critical Theories
FIGURATIONAL THEORY: UNDERSTANDING SPORTS IN TERMS OF HISTORICAL AND GLOBAL PROCESSES
SUMMARY: IS THERE A BEST THEORETICAL APPROACH TO USE WHEN STUDYING SPORTS?
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theorizing involves reflection
and analysis in order to explain our world and to control our destiny
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combination of description,
reflection and analysis
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don't need to use big words
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not true that theories are not
practical ... we all use very practical theorizing to live our daily
lives
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Modernism: belief that humans
can use rationality, science and technology to improve life
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search for universal social laws
probably an unrealistic expectation
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might keep people from
focusing on specific problems
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might not be possible to
find the right theory which could explain events in a changing
world
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might be that theories
only perpetuate existing inequities
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why are there so many different
theoretical approaches in sociology?
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maybe theories of males
do not apply to females
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maybe Eurocentric theories
are too limiting
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maybe new technologies
are creating new social realities
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maybe people are beginning
to accept that science is part of culture ... it too can be
biased
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remember that people's answers
to everyday problems are in large part, due to their theoretical positions
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theories are critical to our
understanding of the world
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sociological theories are public
and subject to systematic testing and critique
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subject to change
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based on work of > 1
person
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however, remember that theories
are only tools, not sacred truths
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Back to Table of Contents
- six major theoretical
positions:
- functionalist theory
- conflict theory
- interactionist theory
- critical theroy
- feminist theory
- figurational theory
- lots of overlap in the above
theoretical positions
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assume that society is an organized
system
- people hold same basic values
- all major parts of society support the system
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key point is idea of balance
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society functions on consensus,
common values and coordinated organization
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events which are sudden
and which upset the balance are dysfunctional ... and are discarded
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society is like an organism -
gradually changing
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society needs four things:
- People must be taught basic values and rules (pattern maintenance).
People are taught to want to do what they must do
- There must be social mechanisms to bring people together (social
integration).
- There must be a system to teach people important life goals
(goal attainment).
- There must be methods which can handle change smoothly (adaptation).
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- Studies of the relationship between sport participation and good character
- sport teaches people about basic values and norms
- Studies of social integration in groups, communities, and societies:
- e.g. integrating different social classes
- Studies of participation and achievement motivation - e.g. working
hard to be successful
- Studies of how sports develop abilities necessary to defend society
against threats - e.g. war, technology, survival skills
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functionalist approach usually
followed by those who like the status quo
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like to compare sport to other
institutions
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sport has valuable lessons for
children
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sport is an inspiration
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used to make many decisions:
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interscholastic sports
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military sport
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sport for girls and women
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promotion of Olympic Games
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orientation toward traditional
societal values:
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individualism
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competition
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success
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policy decisions related to "more
of the same, only better"
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developmental sport programs
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coaching certification
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athlete supervision
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drug testing
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systems model approach ...look
for interrelationships in all things
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leads to exaggerated statements
about positive effects of sport
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anything that lasts is
good (i.e. it is functional)
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does not consider that
sport could distort values
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based on the assumption that
the needs of individuals are the same as the needs of the system
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some groups benefit more
than others (e.g. Toronto Olympics)
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ignores the extent to which sport
is the creation of interacting people (i.e. sport as a "social
construction")
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functionalism benefits those
with power and wealth
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based on the idea of social control
and manipulation by powerful group(s)
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ultimate control of everything
is based on money, wealth and economic power
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oriented toward change, not the
status quo
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same goal as functionalism: general
theory about everything in society
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Karl Marx:
- need efficient work processes
- need large industrial bureaucracies
- causes specialized and alienating jobs
- people need escape and excitement
- consumerism/spectacles created to be exciting
- sport is a good spectacle because:
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tied to consumerism
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same as capitalism
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dominance
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obedience
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discipline
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competitive success
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Marx: religion is the opiate
of the masses
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conflict theorists look for:
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alienation
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athletes become alienated
from their bodies (Jean-Marie Brohm, 1978)
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instrumental view
of body, machine
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drug abuse
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coercion & control
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sport distorts people's
thoughts about their goals in life
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sport diverts people's
attention away from important issues
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commercialism
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e.g. consumption
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e.g. materialistic
dependence
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nationalism & militarism
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too much encouragement
of national pride
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racism & sexism
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sport perpetuates
racial and sexual stereotypes
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conflict theory is very concerned
with unequal distribution of power and economic resources
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ultimate conclusion: radical
change (revolution?)
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Stone: sport is the opiate of
the masses
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conflict theory is not comfortable
for people
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bit too much orientation on economic
matters, class inequality and radical change
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call for more play and less business
emphasis
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union mentality (power to the
people)
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more concern for "have-nots"
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call for fewer and/or less emphasis
on spectator sports
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Excludes factors other than capitalism
in explaining sport
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assumes that sport is determined
by the system of production
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Overemphasizes extent to which
sport is controlled by people in power (i.e. class relations and money)
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ignores the fact that people
might define themselves on the basis of something other than
class (e.g. gender, race, ethnicity, age)
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too much emphasis on spectator
sports
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Ignores the fact that sport participation
can be a liberating, expressive, creative experience
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...in conclusion
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too much concern with economic
factors
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too little concern with factors
such as gender, intergroup relations
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functionalism and conflict theory
are "top-down" theories - from society to the individual
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ignores those who play
sport and create sport in their own likeness
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ignores the complexities
of everyday life: sport sometimes helps us, sometimes hinders
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Back to Table of Contents
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focus on "meaning, identity,
social relationships, and subcultures in sports" (pg. 38)
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assumptions:
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behavior involves choices
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choices based on meaning
of the situation
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we behave -> behavior impacts
the world -> self understanding
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the self:
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formed through behavior
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constantly changes
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human behavior is not governed
by a cause-effect relationship ... it is contingent, changeable and
somewhat unpredictable
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notion of identity:
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who we are is what we do
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identities always changing
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people assign meanings to things
... then the things become associated with them
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notion of "social
creation"
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people as choice makers
- not responders
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avoidance of use of a cause-effect
model
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focus on:
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social processes of becoming
an athlete
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how people develop meanings/identities
from participating in sport (e.g. "I'm a soccer player.")
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issue of meaning of sports
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process of retirement and
its effects
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issue of sport subcultures
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general research focus is on
how people see their social worlds
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participant observation, in-depth
interviews
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meanings of sport participation
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sport situations have to be defined
in terms of relationships with others
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focus on athletes - not coaches,
administrators, spectators, etc.
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have to consider the needs of
children in youth sports - not adults who are also involved
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too personal ... no link to larger
society
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cannot handle non-rational behavior
(everything is rational problem-solving and choice behavior)
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ignores physical experiences
... all in the head
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about culture, power and social
relations
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emphasis on action and
political involvement
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attempt to explain:
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production and reproduction
of culture
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processes of power
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peoples' attempts to make
sense out of the world
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assumes that sport is created
by people interacting with one another
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interested in questions like:
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why have sports come to
involve aggression, competition and rationalized pursuit of
winning?
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why does sport excellence
have little to do with daily life?
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Sports Are More than Reflections of Society
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family both a reflection
of society and its "real" stuff
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people create families
.. always changing
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notion of "family" is not fixed and unchanging
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sports both a reflection
of society and its "real" stuff
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people create sport
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people define sport
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notion of "sports" is not fixed and unchanging
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would like to avoid economic
determinism (conflict theory) and universalistic social laws (functionalism)
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"the search for general
social laws or social truths about society and social life is
fruitless" (pg. 42)
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assumes that shared values and
conflicts of interest coexist simultaneously
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therefore, there will be negotiation,
compromise and coercion
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therefore, the sport/society
relationship changes over time:
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government
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education
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media
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family
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masculinity/femininity
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typical mode of thinking when
using critical theory:
- have to understand history/culture in order to understand sport
- have to consider "who" makes decisions (apart from
the logic of the decision itself)
- have to remember that sport is not just a mere "reflection
of society"
- have to study sports in context with social relationships -
not just on their own
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look at some of the following
issues:
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whose ideas are counted
with respect to sports
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sport ties to power in
society
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sports and the perpetuation
of power
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sport and current ideas
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how to define sport
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how to use sport to change
things
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focus on how phenomena
develop
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interest on how sport decisions
are made (i.e. who makes them?)
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ultimate goal is change: HOW
TO EFFECT CHANGE
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what sport could be
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how opportunities vary
over different groups
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how sport could be improved
(changed) to meet all needs
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how & when sport could
be a catalyst for major societal changes
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assumption is that sport is more
than just a reflection of society
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Material from Sixth Edition
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Birrell & Richter,
1994: women's slow-pitch softball is not the same as men's
(less overemphasis on winning, coach power, social exclusion,
elitism, risk orientation or derogation of opponents) ...
therefore, sport can be seen as a form of social invention
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Messner, 1992 found
that masculinity is socially created and that the sport
experiences of 30 former athletes made them less respectful
of their bodies
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Foley, 1990 found that
sports were important rituals, but ultimately helped perpetuate
existing gender, race, ethnic and income discrimination
in a small Texas town
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critical theories are confrontational
... aimed at effecting change
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assume that you can't change
sport without going after organizational aspects
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therefore call for more
sport participation alternatives
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also question the stories about
sport, and who is allowed to tell them
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e.g. more women involved
in creation of ideology and organization of sports
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Critical Feminist Theories: Assessing Gender Relations and Sports
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feminist theory:
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fundamental criticism
is that sports are gendered
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based on premise
that females have been systematically devalued, exploited
and oppressed
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liberal feminism:
discrimination and unequal opportunities for women
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radical feminism:
not good enough to have equal opportunities for women
... need to change the whole male-oriented system ...
possibly a bad idea for women to participate in activities
which have been created primarily for men
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Birrell, 2000 re issues
of critical feminist theories:
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modern organized
sport connected with the idea of teaching "manly" values
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violence, physical
domination, physical power, stamina = idea that
men>women
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competition,
efficiency, performance emphasis = notion
of sport as a "gendered activity" (males
= good, females = bad)
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women underrepresented
in media coverage
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strategies to challenge
gender logic
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gender and ideas
about the body
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other questions arising
from critical feminist theory:
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sport = masculinity
link (i.e. not femininity)
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male power/privilege
and packaging, promotion and playing of sports
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exclusion of women
in sport organizations
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weakness of critical feminist
theory:
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same as critical
theory in general
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in addition, almost
exclusive preoccupation with gender (exclude age, race,
ethnicity, social class, religion, nationality)
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Too vague - too many versions
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No guidelines for predicting
when sport reinforces status quo and when it becomes an oppositional
force
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theories are too concerned
with specific problems ... not enough concern about building
a general theoretical base of knowledge
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assumption that social
life is constructed (or always under construction), therefore
there are no guidelines as to how it should be constructed
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resistance is the "strategy
of the day" ... therefore all kinds of resistance is promoted
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this type of strategy is
counterproductive when the dominant social norm is good (don't
have to fight when there is no war)
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Western Europe, history-based
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assumption: people are interdependent...create
networks
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interconnections called
"figurations"
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cannot understand people without
understanding how they help each other (e.g. education, socialization)
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people do not exist outside
of figurations ... they are social beings
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people's individual actions
combine to form outcomes which are often not planned
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major topics - historical and
social processes affecting:
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development of modern sports
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sport participation (e.g.
professional and commercial sports)
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violence in sports (e.g.
soccer hooliganism)
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national identity and globalization
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sports closely studied because
of their collective nature
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e.g. Dunning, 1999: excitement
creating, boredom reducing aspects
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Maguire, 1999: issue of globalization
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elite athlete migration
patterns
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global sport industry
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global media-sport connection
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global sport and connection
with national identities
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would like to be able to use
knowledge in order to reduce violence, exploitation and misuse of
power in sports
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implicit understanding that sometimes
what we intend to do, can backfire ... therefore not a lot of emphasis
on interventional tactics
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historical emphasis reduces attention
to current problems
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difficult to apply to current
problems
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assumption of interdependence
in people does not allow for consideration of power inequities
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e.g. orientation to sports
as a male preserve ignores critical feminist theories
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Back to Table of Contents
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Coakley's theoretical orientation:
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combination of interaction
theories and critical feminist theories
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remember that we all use theories
in our everyday lives. Theories are Practical.
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when people make decisions/policies
about sport and/or when they spend/withhold money in connection with
sport, they are acting on the basis of popular theories about sport
in society
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many people see society as a
system...they are likely to have a functionalist approach
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leads people to promote changes
emphasizing traditional societal values (e.g. individualism, competition,
success)
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more organized competitive
programs
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more structured sport experiences
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more supervision of athletes
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more coaching education
programs
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more top-level training
centres
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more drug testing
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more developmental programs
for kids
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more controlled coaching
certification programs
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conflict theory proponents want
changes
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elimination of the profit
motive
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more control by the athletes
themselves
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more playlike orientation
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policies like
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player unions/organizations
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fewer spectator sports
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critical theory proponents want
a different organization of sport
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policies offering more
choice between sports
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policies offering more
choice within sports
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symbolic interactionists want
to know the meaning sports hold for people
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everyone should have the opportunity
to raise issues about purpose and conditions of their sport
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figurational theories help to
understand historical and global issues
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Back to Table of Contents
EXAM REVIEW QUESTIONS
- Describe two basic assumptions for each of the following three theoretical positions: functionalist theory, conflict theory, interactionist theory. Provide two points for each one. (6 points)
- Describe two major societal concerns for each of the three following theoretical positions: critical theory, feminist theory, interactionist theory. Provide two concerns for each one. (6 points)
- Describe two major sport concerns for each of the three following theoretical posisions: functionalist theory, interactionist theory, feminist theory. Provide two concerns for each one. (6 points)
- Describe two conclusions about the sport-society relationship which would be made using each of the three following theoretical positions: conflict theory, critical theory, interactionist theory. Provide two conclusions for each one. (6 points)
- Describe two social action and policy implications which would be expected from each of the three following theoretical positions: functionalist theory, critical theory, feminist theory. Provide two implications for each one. (6 points)
- Describe two major weaknesses for each of the the following three theoretical positions: functionalist theory, conflict theory, critical theory. Provoce two weaknesses for each one. (6 points.
Last Revised:
September 19, 2009 1:25 PM
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